Caregiver responsibilities discrimination
For faculty, gender discrimination often takes the form of requirements that structurally disadvantage women because of pregnancy and family responsibilities, such as requirements that training involving travel must be completed to obtain promotion (Standing 2000). Faculty leave their positions or turn down employment offers due to work-family concerns (US: Mason et al. 2005). Institutions may demonstrate hiring preferences for male faculty due to the belief that female faculty taking maternity leave will be disruptive (Kenya: Newman et al. 2011).
“[Schools] would rather employ a male lecturer than female because females need a lot of duty (i.e., maternity leaves).” —Kenyan health school director (Newman et al. 2011)
Occupational gender segregation
Cultural mechanisms such as gender stereotypes, employer and institutional discrimination, and social expectations, as well as economic factors, drive the concentration of women and men into different jobs (Charles and Grusky, 2004). Their contribution to occupational gender segregation into certain cadres prevents significant female representation in decision-making positions and existing male-dominated professional networks, and limits career advancement opportunities through formal and informal means (Standing 2000; George 2007). In Kenya, female health faculty members were concentrated in lower-level teaching positions, and males held top teaching and leadership positions even in occupations traditionally considered female such as nursing (Newman et al. 2011). In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a report of seven nursing schools found that 83% of all educators were male, and professors were 18% more likely to be male (Bailey, Kamanzi, and Deussom 2012). In Ethiopia, an assessment of three nursing and midwifery colleges showed that there were between three and four male teachers for every female teacher (Zeleke et al. 2012). This may seem contradictory, given the female profile of the profession, but it is consistent with other research findings that instructors are more likely to be male as one progresses from the primary to tertiary level (International Labour Office 2010). These findings also apply to the health workforce. A study in the UK found that female nurses who took career breaks for caregiving took 23 years to reach a higher professional grade, while male nurses took eight years to reach the same grade (Standing 2000). In addition, gender issues may play a role in what posts prospective faculty would accept. For example, posts at rural or remote schools may be perceived as unsafe or challenging for a female faculty member.
Suggested data analyses
Sex-disaggregated analyses of faculty by position can help to reveal if gender discrimination is affecting recruitment trends at health professional education institutions. Additional disaggregation by location (e.g., urban vs. rural) could provide further detail about a country’s or system’s situation.
In the chart below showing findings from seven nursing and midwifery institutions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it can be observed that men occupy the majority of positions, even in a female-dominated profession, and the highest remunerated position (professor) has the fewest women.
Distribution of Faculty by Position and Sex in Nursing and Midwifery Training Schools, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2012 (N=7 institutions)
Source: Bailey, Kamanzi, and Deussom 2012.
Qualitative research, surveys, focus group discussions, or other special studies with health professional faculty can help you to understand the underlying factors and dynamics contributing to recruitment challenges, and whether gender discrimination prevents male and/or female faculty from being successfully recruited.
Ask Yourself:
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